Abstract: Architecture of Kievan Rus. Painting and architecture of Kievan Rus

The origins of ancient Russian art go back to the art of the Eastern Slavs, who inhabited in the 1st millennium AD. e. European territory of Russia. Art This was associated with the pagan cult, had a magical-animistic character and was widely included in everyday life ancient Slavs. Initial stages The art of the Eastern Slavs is still little studied, but, probably, in its formation it came into contact with the art of the Scythian-Sarmatians and the ancient colonies of the Northern Black Sea region.

Architecture of the Eastern Slavs of the 1st millennium AD. e-became known from archaeological excavations and scant literary data.

Wood was used as material for the construction of dwellings and temples. Arab Ibn Fadlan, who described his journey at the beginning of the 10th century. in Bolgar on the Volga, indicates that Russian merchants cut down “large wooden houses” there. Another 10th century author, Ibn Ruste, compares the “pointed roofs” of houses in Kyiv with the “roofs of Christian churches.”

The emergence of a peasant dwelling - a hut with its simple and expedient forms corresponding to the harsh climate - dates back to ancient times.

Sculpture was in its infancy among the ancient Slavs. The idol (10th century), found in the Zbruch River, is a crude image of a four-faced deity crowned with a princely cap. Made using the technique of flat carving, this work is not devoid of expressiveness. Works of applied art - bronze and silver jewelry, enamel-colored clasps - brooches, temple rings - colts, beads, combs with animal figures - are marked by the developed taste of folk craftsmen. In the products of the ancient Slavs, the ornament for the most part

The artistic tastes and skills that were formed then did not disappear with the emergence of feudalism and the adoption of Christianity. The influence of ancient Slavic creativity on ancient Russian art affected not only the preservation techniques, but also in the fusion of traditional pagan ideas with images of the Christian pantheon. The magical meaning of many images was forgotten over time, but as motifs they continued to live in sculpture, miniatures, carvings, embroidery and jewelry.

The process of feudalization led in the 9th century. to the formation of Kievan Rus, a large state that quickly gained fame throughout the then world. Not only neighbors who experienced military power of the new Slavic state, had to take its interests into account, but also in distant countries of Western Europe, as well as in the Baghdad Caliphate, there was a desire to establish economic and cultural relations with Kiev. They began to conclude agreements with the Kyiv princes and send diplomats, scientists and missionaries to them.

For Kievan Rus the adoption of Christianity had progressive significance. It contributed to a more organic and deep assimilation of all the best that Byzantium, which was advanced for that time, possessed. From 10th to 15th centuries. Old Russian art had very close ties with Byzantine art. Icons, fabrics, jewelry and much more were brought from Byzantium. Some monuments of Byzantine art have become genuine Russian shrines, for example the famous icon Our Lady of Vladimir . The Greeks took part in decorating many ancient Russian temples and often found their second homeland in Rus'. The work of these artists acquired features on Russian soil that testify to the strong influence of local artistic tastes. Great importance

in the formation of the art and culture of Kievan Rus at the first stages it also had a close connection with the Bulgarian state, which was experiencing at the beginning of the 11th century. your heyday.

Christian churches appeared in Rus' back in the 10th century. At first they were wooden, which is associated with long-standing traditions of architecture, especially northern ones. It is no coincidence that the ancient chronicle noted the activities of Vyshgorod architects of the 11th century, masters of wooden architecture - Mironega and Zhdan-Nikola. At the end of the 10th century. In Novgorod, the church of St. Sophia “has thirteen heights,” and she was “honestly arranged and decorated.” In 1049, the church burned down, as did many tens of thousands of wooden buildings erected by Russian architects in the 11th and subsequent centuries.

Even the oldest ones have not survived stone temples. However, excavations made it possible to establish the plan of the first city Kyiv cathedral - the Tithe Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, built at the request of Prince Vladimir (989-996). At first it was a three-nave cross-domed church; in 1039, under Prince Yaroslav, it was expanded and became five-nave. It is impossible to imagine his appearance. The results of excavations allow us, however, to assert that the inside was richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Near the cathedral there were stone palace buildings, also richly decorated with marble, mosaics, and majolica tiles.

During the construction of the most significant monument of that time - St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (11th century) (Fig. on pages 127 and 129) - Old Russian architecture already had its own techniques of monumental architecture. The Byzantine system of the cross-domed church, with the clarity of its main divisions and the consistency of the composition of the internal space, formed the basis of the five-nave Kyiv Cathedral of St. Sophia. However, not only the experience of building the Tithe Church was used here. The cathedral differs from all Byzantine churches in the number of domes: there are thirteen of them, that is, as many as there were in the unpreserved wooden Church of Sophia in Novgorod. The configuration of the external volumes, which gradually rise towards the center, towards the main dome, is also characteristic. The principle of a gradual, as if stepwise increase in the mass of a building began in the 11th century. consistently carried out in ancient Russian architecture.

Sofia, like other large city cathedrals of the 11th century. and later ones, in many ways, determine the character of all ancient Russian architecture. This is explained by the significance of the cathedral in the life of the city. Russian churches, like the cathedrals of the West, were places not only of church services, but also of ceremonial meetings of townspeople. The most pressing issues were discussed and resolved here, and ambassadors were received here. In churches built by individual trading communities, as was the case in Novgorod and Pskov, meetings of members took place trade associations. Thus, the appearance of the temple, its size, and its interior met not only cultic, but also secular purposes. The temple was distinguished by its massiveness, even the heaviness of its forms. Grandeur, representativeness, and solemnity were determined by the role of the St. Sophia Cathedral as the main architectural structure of the city. The architectural image of the building embodied the idea of strength and greatness of the Kyiv state.

Church of St. Sofia in Kyiv. Eastern façade.

Reconstruction

The original appearance of the cathedral was significantly different from the modern one. From the north, west and south it was surrounded by an open gallery, the openings of which were subsequently blocked; the walls were not whitewashed, and rows of bricks alternating with wide strips of pinkish cement gave the temple a picturesque and elegant appearance.

The five naves of Sophia are clearly distinguished, but they all gravitate towards the central domed room. Internal divisions are expressed in the external volumes of the cathedral and, above all, in the domes, among which the massive central dome subordinates the others. Various sizes of domes, wavy and lively lines of zakomars (semicircular ends of facades), an extensive external gallery - all this creates a rather complex and at the same time harmonious combination of volumes and lines. The original appearance of the temple has been preserved only on the eastern side. The walls of the five apses, decorated with blind stepped arches, are not distorted here by later extensions.

The interior of the cathedral is divided into separate parts by twelve powerful cross-shaped pillars. The impression of dynamic space arises due to the abundance of the most unexpected points of view, the rich and complex play of light and shadow. Anyone entering the temple first of all pays attention to the huge altar arch, to the vast room of the central apse; the mysterious darkness of the side rooms further confirms the dominant position of the dome space. Inside Sofia, all the walls, vaults, apses, pillars and dome are covered with mosaics and frescoes (ill. 87). As in, the images in the Kyiv Sophia were supposed to reveal the main tenets of Orthodoxy. These purposes were served by the images of Christ Pantocrator (Pantocrator) and the four archangels - in the central dome, the apostles - in the piers of the drum, the evangelists - in the sails of the vault, the Mother of God Oranta - in the central apse, the sacrament of communion of the apostles and images of saints - on the wall of the apse, as well as numerous gospel scenes and figures of ascetic monks and warrior saints are on the walls, pillars and vaults of the remaining parts of the temple.

The surrounding world seemed to the artists to be a harmonious and indissoluble whole, all parts of which were strictly dependent on each other. This was a decisive step forward compared to the vague magical ideas of pagan times. But what was even more important was that, in depicting saints, the artists showed the moral strength and fortitude of man, his high moral qualities, and also emphasized in the appearance of the deity the features of a protector and patron of people. It is not without reason that one of the neutral images of Sophia is the image of the Mother of God Oranta (ill. 86), to which the Russian people gave the name “Unbreakable Wall” (some researchers rightly associate this composition with the image of the Great Goddess in pagan ancient Slavic art). Already in the 11th century. Russian artists with particular love depicted the warrior saint, in whom they sought to embody the ideal of a brave man, defender of the Russian land.

It was difficult for the uninitiated viewer to understand the complex world of Christian legends, but he was immediately captivated by the greatness of the general solution. The use of mosaic technique in the most important parts of the painting is obviously explained by the desire to highlight them in, basic. The color of the mosaics is restrained, although built on rich gray-violet; blue, bluish, green, bright yellow tones of figures and objects, and a very dense, but seemingly iridescent golden background, designed to be viewed from a long distance. The compositions of figures and individual scenes, balanced, sometimes even frozen, are extremely restrained and solemn. All artistic means are aimed at creating an overall impression of majesty and strength.

Color also plays a huge role here. The Mother of God, in violet-blue robes and a dark purple cloak, seems to float out of the background, the golden surface of which, from different points of view, either burns with a bright flame, or glows dully and dimly. The shimmer of golden smalt creates a special artistic effect and gives the figure of Oranta even greater definition, weight and significance.

define your moral standards. They apparently valued, above all, mental fortitude; they were impressed by masculinity, inflexibility, and stern simplicity.

Byzantine masters supervised the decoration of the temple, and, of course, the central compositions belong to them. But there is also no doubt that in the process of grandiose work, Russian artists also joined them. In particular, this is evidenced by the characteristic Russian features of many faces.

Majestic and severe images were created in the mosaics of the St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv (second half of the 11th century), which have come down to us in fragments.

In the image of Dmitry Solunsky (ill. between pages 128 and 129), the features of stern masculinity come to the fore. Thin lips are tightly compressed, a protruding chin speaks of an unyielding will. The combination of burning golden armor and a golden mosaic background, a soft pink shirt and a light green cloak, a wealth of shades of gray, blue, and purple form a ringing colorful chord that enhances the emotional expressiveness of the image.

The features of direct perception of the environment are clearly visible in a number of images on the walls of the staircase leading to the choir of the Kyiv Sophia, although in terms of artistic significance they are inferior to the mosaics and frescoes of the temple itself. Pictures of competitions at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, hunting scenes, games of buffoons, musicians, etc. are presented here, as well as the Byzantine emperor and empress and spectators watching the competitions and games. Recalling the role of the Byzantine emperors in public life Constantinople, these paintings were supposed to glorify the power of the Kyiv prince. The same goal was pursued by the portrait images in the central part of the temple. Group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise have been preserved (the best of them depict Princess Irina and her three daughters). Such still very conventional portrait images are not alone in the art of the Kyiv period. Similar ones are found in a number of manuscripts decorated with miniatures: in the “Svyatoslav Collection” (1073) and in the Russian part of the so-called Trier Psalter, which belonged to Prince Izyaslav’s wife Gertrude (1078-1087).

The art of miniatures spread widely in Kievan Rus. The most significant monument is the Ostromir Gospel, performed by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1056-1057.

(Leningrad Public Library named after M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The gospel miniatures contain many features that are unusual in Byzantine art itself. A more flat interpretation of the figures of the evangelists, a penchant for pure local colors, the use of gold in contours - everything speaks of the formation of a new, more decorative painting style, the formation of special painting traditions. The art of Kyiv also knew sculpture. This is evidenced by the tomb of Yaroslav in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (11th century), which is apparently the work of non-Russian masters and goes back to early Christian examples of plastic art, reliefs(11th century), possibly originating from secular buildings, as well as reliefs, apparently from the Dmitrievsky Monastery (11th century) - an example of the transfer of wooden carving techniques to stone sculpture.

The applied art of Kievan Rus was distinguished by high skill. Having become widespread in everyday life, it equally manifested itself in religious objects (salaries, carved icons, folding crosses, church utensils, etc.). Among the crafts, artistic casting should be mentioned (arches of the princely castle of Vshchizh near Bryansk, 12th century), complex techniques of niello, filigree and granulation (in jewelry production), glazed ceramics and especially enamel work. Kyiv Enamellers were famous far beyond the borders of Rus'; their works, along with Byzantine enamels, enjoyed great success, representing wonderful monuments of the finest craftsmanship and impeccable artistic taste. As an example, we can cite the magnificent setting of the so-called Mstislav Gospel (early 12th century) - a true miracle of applied art. Covered with a filigree pattern, it is decorated with the “Deesis” and bust images of saints, made using the cloisonné enamel technique. The colors here are remarkable - dark blue, lilac, emerald, brick red, sky blue - delicate, but unusually intense. Although their combinations are very diverse, they do not give the impression of fragmentation. This corresponds to the character of the images of saints, which, despite small sizes, seem monumental.

Although the information we have about the applied art of Kievan Rus is fragmentary, it can be assumed that it developed very intensively and Christian canons could not contain the flow of ancient, still pagan images. For example, in enamels, along with sacred images, there is a sirin - a bird with a woman's head, a fantastic firebird.

Several local painting and architectural schools were formed in the Kiev state. Some of them - the architectural schools of Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Novgorod - played a big role in the formation of ancient Russian art. In the 11th century in many cities cathedrals were built according to the system developed by Kyiv architects; at the same time, they are characterized by originality, due to the characteristics of local cultures. Thus, the earliest surviving monument of Novgorod is the Cathedral of St. Sophia (1045 -1050) (ill. 88, figure on p. 132) - differs significantly from its Kyiv prototype. Instead of thirteen domes, it has only five, which gives it severity and compactness. Clarity of forms, clear delimitation of volumes, constructive certainty (thanks to powerful blades running from the base of the zakomara to the ground) - everything gives the temple an extraordinary solidity. There is something heroic and unshakable about him. This impression is enhanced by the helmet-shaped domes. Obviously, the Novgorodians perfectly felt the power that emanated from the Temple of Sophia, the latter was personified in their minds with a freedom-loving and rebellious city. No wonder the words “For St. Sophia!” was their battle cry.

Initially, the Novgorod Church of Sophia was not plastered.

Its external appearance was given a special severity by the walls, made of irregular blocks of roughly hewn stones, held together with pinkish (from the admixture of crushed brick) lime mortar. However, whitewashing in the 12th century. but she destroyed this impression and, perhaps, even imparted greater integrity and unity to the temple. Thanks to the combination of the dazzling whiteness of the walls and the shine of the golden domes, the cathedral acquired an unusually solemn appearance.

When deciding on the interior, the builder of the Novgorod Cathedral relied on the experience of Kyiv architects, but changed the Kiev prototype in many ways. The central dome space here is more sharply separated from the side rooms, which, in turn, strongly oppose the spacious and bright choirs located to the north, west and south. Thanks to this, the entire interior seems less complicated.

Church of St. Sofia in Novgorod. Plan

Rischensky Cathedral (1113), Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary of the Anthony Monastery (1117), St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119) (ill. 91). The forms of St. George's Cathedral are chased and mature. Laconism, characteristic of Sofia of Novgorod, is elevated here to a principle.

Despite the simplicity of the identical treatment of the facades, the cathedral in no way gives the impression of monotony and dryness. Thanks to the asymmetrical three-domed composition, as you walk around the temple, more and more new vantage points appear.

The interior space of the cathedral is decidedly different from the interior of Sofia; it is unified and holistic. The viewer immediately embraces him, perceiving his aspiration upward, towards the dome. In this second largest Novgorod church after Sophia, the architect Peter decisively breaks with the Byzantine-Kievan tradition and to a certain extent anticipates the Novgorod style of subsequent times.

Novgorod painting of the first half of the 12th century. also testifies to original creative quests. The surviving frescoes of the Cathedral of the Anthony Monastery are distinguished by their great picturesqueness and freedom in the interpretation of traditional images of saints and speak of artistic ties with the Romanesque West.

Very interesting are the miniatures of the Mstislav Gospel 1117, State Historical Museum), representing a free copy of the miniatures of the Ostro-Mir Gospel. The Novgorod miniaturist simplified the silhouette, but he resorted to contrasts of dark and light much more freely than the Kiev master.

The images of the evangelists are more emotionally expressive and more excited.

Chapter “The Art of Kievan Rus.” Section "The Art of Ancient Rus'". General history of art. Volume II. Art of the Middle Ages. Book I. Europe. Author: O.I. Sopocinsky; under the general editorship of Yu.D. Kolpinsky (Moscow, State Publishing House "Art", 1960)

Architecture of the Eastern Slavs of the 1st millennium AD. e. became known from archaeological excavations and scant literary data. Wood was used as material for the construction of dwellings and temples. Arab Ibn Fadlan, who described his journey at the beginning of the 10th century. in Bolgar on the Volga, indicates that Russian merchants cut down “large wooden houses” there. Another 10th-century author, Ibn Ruste, compares the “pointed roofs” of houses in Kyiv with the “roofs of Christian churches.”

The emergence of a peasant dwelling - a hut with its simple and expedient forms corresponding to the harsh climate - dates back to ancient times.

Works of applied art - bronze and silver jewelry, enamel-colored clasps - brooches, temple rings - colts, beads, combs with animal figures - are marked by the developed taste of folk craftsmen. In the products of the ancient Slavs, the ornamentation is for the most part very calm, and the images do not inspire fear in a person. A resident of endless wilds, the ancient Slav saw in the fantastic creatures that, as he believed, inhabited forests, waters and swamps, not so much his enemies as his patrons. They protected, “took care” of him. He felt involved in their lives, and therefore in art he sought to emphasize this indissoluble connection. In some images (a bronze fibula from the environs of Zenkov, 8th century; a bronze plate from the Belogorsk burial mound, 10th-11th centuries, etc.), the fusion of human figures with various animals forms the most fantastic combinations.

The artistic tastes and skills that were formed then did not disappear with the emergence of feudalism and the adoption of Christianity. The influence of ancient Slavic creativity on ancient Russian art was reflected not only in the preservation of technical techniques, but also in the merging of traditional pagan ideas with images of the Christian pantheon. The magical meaning of many images was forgotten over time, but as motifs they continued to live in sculpture, miniatures, carvings, embroidery and jewelry.

The process of feudalization led in the 9th century. to the formation of Kievan Rus, a large state that quickly gained fame throughout the then world. Not only the neighbors, who had experienced the military power of the new Slavic state, had to take its interests into account, but also in the distant countries of Western Europe, as well as in the Baghdad Caliphate, a desire arose to establish economic and cultural relations with Kiev. They began to conclude agreements with the Kyiv princes and send diplomats, scientists and missionaries to them.

For Kievan Rus, the adoption of Christianity had progressive significance. It contributed to a more organic and deep assimilation of all the best that Byzantium, which was advanced for that time, possessed. From 10th to 15th centuries. Old Russian art had very close ties with Byzantine art. Icons, fabrics, jewelry and much more were brought from Byzantium. Some monuments of Byzantine art have become genuine Russian shrines, for example the famous icon of Our Lady of Vladimir. The Greeks took part in decorating many ancient Russian temples and often found their second homeland in Rus'. The work of these artists acquired features on Russian soil that testify to the strong influence of local artistic tastes. Of great importance in the formation of the art and culture of Kievan Rus in the early stages was the close connection with the Bulgarian state, which was experiencing a revolution at the beginning of the 11th century. your heyday.

In the 10th-11th centuries. The Kiev state, having become one of the most significant, had trade and cultural relations with England, France and other European countries and with the countries of the East. Very quickly, the culture of Kievan Rus reached a high level, competing with the culture of not only Western Europe, but also Byzantium. Kyiv, one of the largest and richest cities in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, experienced a brilliant flourishing. According to Thietmar of Merseburg, a German writer of the early 11th century, Kyiv had several hundred churches and many markets, indicating brisk trade and vigorous construction activity.

The oldest stone temples have not survived either. However, excavations made it possible to establish the plan of the first city Kyiv cathedral - the Tithe Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, built at the request of Prince Vladimir (989-996). At first it was a three-nave cross-domed church; in 1039, under Prince Yaroslav, it was expanded and became five-nave. It is impossible to imagine his appearance. The results of excavations allow us, however, to assert that the inside was richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Near the cathedral there were stone palace buildings, also richly decorated with marble, mosaics, and majolica tiles.

During the construction of the most significant monument of that time - St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (11th century) - ancient Russian architecture already had its own techniques of monumental architecture. The Byzantine system of the cross-domed church, with the clarity of its main divisions and the consistency of the composition of the internal space, formed the basis of the five-nave Kyiv Cathedral of St. Sophia. However, not only the experience of building the Tithe Church was used here. The cathedral differs from all Byzantine churches in the number of domes: there are thirteen of them, that is, as many as there were in the unpreserved wooden Church of Sophia in Novgorod. The configuration of the external volumes, which gradually rise towards the center, towards the main dome, is also characteristic. The principle of a gradual, as if stepwise increase in the mass of a building began in the 11th century. consistently carried out in ancient Russian architecture.

Sofia, like other large city cathedrals of the 11th century. and later ones, largely determines the character of all ancient Russian architecture. This is explained by the significance of the cathedral in the life of the city. Russian churches, like the cathedrals of the West, were places not only of church services, but also of ceremonial meetings of townspeople. The most pressing issues were discussed and resolved here, and ambassadors were received here. In churches built by individual trading communities, as was the case in Novgorod and Pskov, meetings of members of trade associations took place. Thus, the appearance of the temple, its size, and its interior met not only cultic, but also secular purposes. The temple was distinguished by its massiveness, even the heaviness of its forms. Grandeur, representativeness, and solemnity were determined by the role of the St. Sophia Cathedral as the main architectural structure of the city. The architectural image of the building embodied the idea of strength and greatness of the Kyiv state.

Inside Sofia, all the walls, vaults, apses, pillars and dome are covered with mosaics and frescoes. As in Byzantine churches, the images in the Kyiv Sophia were supposed to reveal the basic tenets of Orthodoxy. This purpose was served by images of Christ the Pantocrator (Pantocrator) and the four archangels - in the central dome, the apostles - in the piers of the drum, the evangelists - in the sails of the vault, the Mother of God Oranta - in the central apse, the sacrament of communion of the apostles and images of saints - on the wall of the apse, as well as numerous gospel scenes and figures of ascetic monks and warrior saints are on the walls, pillars and vaults of the remaining parts of the temple.

The surrounding world seemed to the artists to be a harmonious and indissoluble whole, all parts of which were strictly dependent on each other. This was a decisive step forward compared to the vague magical ideas of pagan times. But what was even more important was that, in depicting saints, the artists showed the moral strength and fortitude of man, his high moral qualities, and also emphasized in the appearance of the deity the features of a protector and patron of people. It is not for nothing that one of the central images of Sofia is the image of the Mother of God Oranta, to which the Russian people gave the name “Unbreakable Wall” (some researchers rightly associate this composition with the image of the Great Goddess in pagan ancient Slavic art). Already in the 11th century. Russian artists with particular love depicted the warrior saint, in whom they sought to embody the ideal of a brave man, defender of the Russian land.

The grandeur and unity of the design of the mosaics and frescoes of Sofia is striking. In combination with the architecture of the temple, they form a unique whole, one of the highest achievements of the synthesis of arts in Ancient Rus'. Despite the differences in techniques and artistic personalities of individual masters, mosaics and frescoes are characterized by a general upbeat, solemn sound. It was difficult for the uninitiated viewer to understand the complex world of Christian legends, but he was immediately captivated by the greatness of the general solution.

The use of mosaic technique in the most important parts of the painting is obviously explained by the desire to highlight them as the main, main ones. The color of the mosaics, restrained, although built on rich gray-violet, blue, bluish, green, bright yellow tones of figures and objects, and a very dense, but seemingly iridescent golden background, is designed to be viewed from a long distance. The compositions of figures and individual scenes, balanced, sometimes even frozen, are extremely restrained and solemn. All artistic means are aimed at creating an overall impression of majesty and strength.

The grandiose, monumental image of the Mother of God Oranta in the central apse, personifying the “earthly church,” is characterized by high spirituality, causing spiritual uplift and elevating the viewer. This is achieved not only by an excellently found calm pose, full of inner significance and a clear, easily visible silhouette, but also by a stern facial expression with wide open eyes, and a free gesture of raised hands, as if stopped in its movement, and clearly defined folds of clothing. Color also plays a huge role here. The Mother of God, in violet-blue robes and a dark purple cloak, seems to float out of the background, the golden surface of which, from different points of view, either burns with a bright flame, or glows dully and dimly. The shimmer of golden smalt creates a special artistic effect and gives the figure of Oranta even greater definition, weight and significance.

The images of saints in Sofia are full of severity. They seem to be elevated above simple human feelings and experiences. But they very clearly and convincingly reveal the desire of the Russian people of the 11th century. define your moral standards. They apparently valued, above all, mental fortitude; they were impressed by masculinity, inflexibility, and stern simplicity.

Majestic and severe images were also created in the mosaics of the St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv (second half of the 11th century), which have come down to us in fragments.

Among the latter, the “Eucharist” (Christ’s communion of the apostles) and the figures of Archdeacon Stephen and Demetrius of Thessalonica are well preserved. The features of these mosaics are much greater freedom of composition than in Sofia, skillful transmission of movement, and most importantly, a vivid individualization of the faces and entire appearance of the apostles and saints.

In the image of Dmitry Solunsky, the features of stern masculinity come to the fore. Thin lips are tightly compressed, a protruding chin speaks of an unyielding will. The combination of burning golden armor and a golden mosaic background, a soft pink shirt and a light green cloak, a wealth of shades of gray, blue, and purple form a ringing colorful chord that enhances the emotional expressiveness of the image.

The features of direct perception of the surroundings are clearly visible in a number of images on the walls of the staircase leading to the choir of the Kyiv Sophia, although in terms of artistic significance they are inferior to the mosaics and frescoes of the temple itself. Pictures of competitions at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, hunting scenes, games of buffoons, musicians, etc. are presented here, as well as the Byzantine emperor and empress and spectators watching the competitions and games. Recalling the role of the Byzantine emperors in the public life of Constantinople, these paintings were supposed to glorify the power of the Kyiv prince. The same goal was pursued by the portrait images in the central part of the temple. Group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise have been preserved (the best of them depict Princess Irina and her three daughters). Such still very conventional portrait images are not alone in the art of the Kyiv period. Similar ones are found in a number of manuscripts decorated with miniatures in the “Svyatoslav Collection” (1073) and in the Russian part of the so-called Trier Psalter, which belonged to Prince Izyaslav’s wife Gertrude (1078-1087).

The art of miniatures spread widely in Kievan Rus. The most significant monument is the Ostromir Gospel, performed by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1056-1057. (Leningrad Public Library named after M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The gospel miniatures contain many features that are unusual in Byzantine art itself. A more flat interpretation of the figures of the evangelists, a penchant for pure local colors, the use of gold in contours - everything speaks of the formation of a new, more decorative painting style, the formation of special painting traditions.

The art of Kyiv also knew sculpture. This is evidenced by the tomb of Yaroslav in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (11th century), which is apparently the work of non-Russian masters and goes back to early Christian examples of plastic art, reliefs of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra (11th century), possibly originating from secular buildings, as well as reliefs, apparently from the Dmitrievsky Monastery (11th century) - an example of the transfer of wooden carving techniques to stone sculpture.

The applied art of Kievan Rus was distinguished by high skill. Having become widespread in everyday life, it equally manifested itself in religious objects (settings, carved icons, folding crosses, church utensils, etc.). Among the crafts, artistic casting should be mentioned (arches of the princely castle of Vshchizh near Bryansk, 12th century), complex techniques of niello, filigree and granulation (in jewelry production), glazed ceramics and especially enamel work. Kyiv Enamellers were famous far beyond the borders of Rus'; their works, along with Byzantine enamels, enjoyed great success, representing wonderful monuments of the finest craftsmanship and impeccable artistic taste. As an example, we can cite the magnificent setting of the so-called Mstislav Gospel (early 12th century) - a true miracle of applied art. Covered with an exquisite pattern, it is decorated with the “Deesis” and bust images of saints, made using the cloisonné enamel technique. The colors here are remarkable - dark blue, lilac, emerald, brick red, sky blue - delicate, but unusually intense. Although their combinations are very diverse, they do not give the impression of fragmentation. This corresponds to the nature of the images of saints, which, despite their small size, seem monumental.

Several local painting and architectural schools were formed in the Kiev state. Some of them - the architectural schools of Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Novgorod - played a big role in the formation of ancient Russian art. In the 11th century in many cities cathedrals were built according to the system developed by Kyiv architects; at the same time, they are characterized by originality, due to the characteristics of local cultures. Thus, the earliest surviving monument of Novgorod is the Cathedral of St. Sofia (1045 -1050) - differs significantly from its Kyiv prototype. Instead of thirteen domes, it has only five, which gives it severity and compactness. Clarity of forms, clear delimitation of volumes, constructive certainty (thanks to powerful blades running from the base of the zakomara to the ground) - everything gives the temple an extraordinary solidity. There is something heroic and unshakable about him. This impression is enhanced by the helmet-shaped domes. Obviously, the Novgorodians perfectly felt the power that emanated from the Temple of Sophia, the latter was personified in their minds with a freedom-loving and rebellious city. No wonder the words “For St. Sophia!” was their battle cry.

Initially, the Novgorod Church of Sophia was not plastered. Its external appearance was given a special severity by the walls, made of irregular blocks of roughly hewn stones, held together with pinkish (from the admixture of crushed brick) lime mortar. However, whitewashing in the 12th century. did not destroy this impression and, perhaps, even imparted greater integrity and unity to the temple. Thanks to the combination of the dazzling whiteness of the walls and the shine of the golden domes, the cathedral acquired an unusually solemn appearance.

In designing the interior, the builders of the Novgorod Cathedral relied on the experience of Kyiv architects, but changed the Kiev prototype in many ways. The central domed space here is more sharply separated from the side rooms, which in turn are strongly opposed to the spacious and bright choirs located to the north, west and south. Thanks to this, the entire interior seems less complicated.

Subsequently, Novgorod architects continued to improve the style they developed, constructing churches that were emphatically harsh, strict and invariably laconic: St. Nicholas Cathedral (1113), Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Antoniev Monastery (1117), St. George's Cathedral at the Yuryev Monastery (1119). The forms of St. George's Cathedral are chased and mature. Laconism, characteristic of Sofia of Novgorod, is elevated here to a principle.

The interior space of the cathedral is decidedly different from the interior of Sofia; it is unified and complete. The viewer immediately embraces him, perceiving his aspiration upward, towards the dome. In this second largest Novgorod church after Sophia, the architect Peter decisively breaks with the Byzantine-Kievan tradition and to a certain extent anticipates the Novgorod style of subsequent times.

Very interesting are the miniatures of the Mstislav Gospel (1103-1117, State Historical Museum), which are a free copy of the miniatures of the Ostromir Gospel. The Novgorod miniaturist simplified the silhouette, but he resorted to contrasts of dark and light much more freely than the Kiev master. The images of the evangelists are more emotionally expressive and more excited.

6. Architecture and fine arts

Most of the monuments of ancient Russian architecture and painting known to us represent church art. Since the Russian Church was part of the Byzantine fold, Russian church art, of course, had to follow the Byzantine canons, at least in the initial period of the spread of Christianity in Rus'. Therefore, it is often said that from the point of view of art history, Kievan Rus was part of Byzantium.

It is impossible to deny the strong Byzantine influence in ancient Russian architecture and painting. But, however, the real process of Russian artistic development was too complex to be described within the framework of the theory of “Byzantinization” of Rus' or any other strict doctrine of this kind. Firstly, our knowledge of ancient Russian art is incomplete. While some church buildings have survived, the monuments of secular architecture have not, since most dwellings were built of wood and therefore were less durable than church buildings. Moreover, with the exception of a few foundations, no buildings from the pre-Christian period have reached us, and thus we have no way of tracing the connection between pagan and Christian architecture. In addition, the very concept of “Byzantine art” requires interpretation. It had several schools and needed to be distinguished, for example, between the architectural style of Constantinople and the Byzantine provinces such as Thrace and Macedonia, on the one hand, and Anatolia, on the other.

Let's start with the problem of pre-Christian architecture in Rus'. Around 1908, in Kyiv, archaeologists discovered an oval building foundation, which was considered the remains of a pagan temple, although there is no direct evidence of this. On this basis, it was suggested that pagan temples in Rus' were oval in shape.354 There is no specific evidence for this general conclusion. If we look at parallels in other Slavic countries, we will see that, for example, the temple of Svyatovit on the island of Rügen is square in shape.

Apparently the first Christian churches were not built for the Russians themselves, soon after their first baptism in 866. Probably one was located in Tmutarakan. In 1022, Prince Mstislav of Tmutarakan built another church there, which served as a model for the cathedral in Chernigov, founded by the same prince. At the time of his death, in 1036, the cathedral was not yet finished, but it was later completed.355

Although the Chernigov Cathedral was rebuilt several times, its original architectural features were preserved. It is organized according to the Byzantine plan - a basilica with five naves; it also clearly shows a certain influence from the architectural style of Transcaucasian temples.356

The first of the luxurious Kyiv churches was the so-called “Tithe” church, founded by Vladimir the Saint and completed in 1039. According to K. J. Conant, this church began to be built according to the plan of a Byzantine basilica with three naves, but later the plan was changed, and twenty appeared five separate volumes intended for the construction of a vault, but not twenty-five domes, as some believe.357

Even earlier, around 989, Vladimir ordered the construction of a cathedral in Novgorod. From the chronicle we learn that the first St. Sophia of Novgorod, built of wood, was about thirteen tops.Some archaeologists are ready to see domes in this term, but it seems more plausible that the “tops” can be explained simply as roof elements.358

According to Conant, one of the architects of this cathedral was apparently from Asia. This style undoubtedly influenced the style of other early Russian churches, both in Novgorod and Kyiv.

The two most impressive monuments of Russian architecture of the eleventh century are the St. Sophia Cathedral, built in Kyiv in 1037-1100, and the second Novgorod Cathedral of the same name, founded in 1045. The Kiev Cathedral has reached us in poor condition, distorted by fires and reconstruction. Novgorod was somewhat better preserved before the German invasion, but was terribly damaged by the Germans before the retreat in 1944.

Apparently, St. Sophia of Kiev in its original form was a majestic cathedral. In plan it was a square, the internal volume was divided by columns into naves. The cathedral had five apses - all on the east side - and thirteen domes; a huge one in the center and twelve smaller ones around it. The cathedral was magnificently decorated inside with wall paintings, mosaics and icons.

As a whole, St. Sophia of Kiev is an outstanding work of the Byzantine style, but it was not a simple copy of any temple that then existed in Byzantium. It is believed that the so-called New Church"(Nea Ecclesia) in Constantinople, completed in 881, served as the initial model for the creators of Sophia and some other Kyiv churches built under Yaroslav the Wise. However, the Kiev St. Sophia is much more complex in its architecture than its prototype. It also shows artistic motifs Byzantine provinces (in this case Anatolia). In addition, the possibility of a certain influence of Novgorod wooden architecture cannot be ruled out, especially if we take into account the number of domes, which coincides with the number of Novgorod “tops”.

The second St. Sophia of Novgorod was erected on the site of the first wooden one, destroyed by fire in 1045. The Novgorod St. Sophia is more austere and less luxurious than the Kiev one, but beautiful in its own way. Its proportions are completely different, the apses are elongated, and although the main volume of the temple is rectangular, it is not square. The cathedral has six domes.

According to A.I. Nekrasov, some architectural features of this temple belong to the Romanesque style.359 During the twelfth century, with the growth of local cultural centers, most of the capitals of the appanage principalities were decorated with churches, each of which, although smaller than the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral, had its own special style.360

It is significant that in artistic style churches of both western Ukraine (Galicia and Volyn) and Eastern Rus'(Suzdal and Ryazan) intertwine Romanesque and Transcaucasian (Georgian and Armenian) stylistic influences. As recent archaeological research shows, the Ryazan church of the early twelfth century had the shape of the so-called “Armenian cross.”361

The second half of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century were the heyday of Suzdal architecture.362

As we know, at this time the Vladimir-Suzdal principality came to the fore, led by such gifted rulers as Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod III. Both were keen builders. It is known from the chronicles that Andrei invited architects from different countries to Suzdal. Historian V.N. Tatishchev claims that Emperor Frederick Barbarossa once sent Andrei master builders from Germany.363 Tatishchev does not indicate the source of this message, but his information is usually reliable. We know that the Suzdal princes maintained friendly relations with both Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. It is possible that Andrei Bogolyubsky hired some Georgian and Armenian architects, as well as builders from Western Rus' (Galicia).

The presence of such large quantity foreign architects in the fifties and sixties of the twelfth century apparently stimulated the artistic activity of local Suzdal masters, and in 1194 the chronicler notes that Vsevolod invited only Russian masters to renovate the cathedrals of Suzdal and Vladimir.364

Two outstanding architectural monuments of the period of Andrei's reign are the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (built in 1158 - 1161, restored in 1185 -1189, rebuilt in 1194) and the amazing miniature Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the banks of the Nerl River near Bogolyubov (1165 G.). During the reign of Vsevolod, the Dimitrievsky Cathedral (1194 - 1197), famous for the decorative decoration of the external walls, was erected in Vladimir. No less remarkable is the St. George Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, built by Vsevolod’s son Svyatoslav (1230 -1234). Its facades are also decorated with carvings, even more spectacular than those on Dimitrievsky.

Although each of these churches has its own personality, they all belong to one common architectural style, “Suzdal”, which is characterized by a harmonious composition and elegance of lines and decoration. In architectural and decorative details there are striking parallels between Suzdal, Armenian and Georgian churches, Suzdal and Western Romanesque. However, it would hardly be correct to call the Suzdal style and churches Romanesque without reservations, as is often done. According to the fair remark of N.P. Kondakov, Romanesque art itself developed under the influence of Byzantium, and many “Romanesque” elements can be found in Byzantine art of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The art of some Eastern European countries, such as Western Ukraine, Serbia and Hungary, belongs to this Roman-Byzantine type and, from Kondakov’s point of view, it is to Western Ukraine (Galicia and Volhynia) that we should turn in attempts to discover the sources of Suzdal art.365

In any case, if there are Romanesque elements in the Suzdal churches, they themselves look completely different from the Romanesque churches of Bohemia, Germany and France. In general, it is difficult to deny that, combining various elements of Byzantine, Transcaucasian and Romanesque art, architects - both foreign and Russian - invited Suzdal princes, created a new and perfect style in Russian art. K. Conant calls it “truly classical” and “worthy of the Hellenistic spirit together with the sense of purity and peace that are always present in the greatest works of art.”366 Subsequently, the Suzdal churches, in turn, served as a model for the Moscow churches of the fifteenth century, built by the Italians. masters.

In addition to churches, both Andrei and Vsevolod built luxurious palaces for themselves. According to the chronicler, both foreigners and Russians gathered in Bogolyubovo to admire Andrei’s chambers. Nothing remains of this palace on earth, but its foundations, recently uncovered by archaeologists, give some idea of this grandiose architectural ensemble, which included chambers, several towers and a cathedral, all connected by galleries.367

While both the church and the princes financed the development of architecture, the church opposed sculpture, considering it a pagan art. The prejudice against sculpture in ancient Rus' was so great that there was no place for it not only in church, but also in secular art. As a result, sculpture in Kievan Rus did not develop independently, and even bas-reliefs were used mainly for decorative purposes.368 Among the few examples of Russian sculpture of this period, one can mention the marble sarcophagi in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, one of them - the sarcophagus of Yaroslav the Wise - is richly decorated. Among the stone bas-reliefs of saints, one can name the bas-reliefs of St. George and St. Michael on the wall of the monastery of St. Michael, dating from the twelfth century; although they are crudely made, they are not without a certain expressiveness. The stone carvings and decorative decorations on the walls of the Dimitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir and the St. George Church in Yuryev-Polsky are extremely diverse and decorative. In addition to various images of Christ and saints, they contain figures of real and fantastic animals and birds, including centaurs and griffins.

Painting, like architecture, enjoyed the support of the Church, and its development was not artificially limited, as happened with sculpture. On the other hand, not as many works of Russian painting from the Kyiv period have survived as examples of architecture, so our knowledge about it inevitably suffers from incompleteness.369

The first painters who worked in Rus' were “Greeks,” that is, Byzantines. Most of them probably came from Anatolia. Fortunately, at least part of the wall paintings of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv has been preserved. These frescoes illustrate the life of the Mother of God, Christ, St. George - the patron saint of Yaroslav the Wise.

On the walls of the staircase leading to the choir, scenes from the life of Constantinople are depicted. From them, images of drivers and chariots at hippodrome races have come down to us. Circus scenes with acrobats, hunters, musicians and jugglers have also been preserved. In the work on frescoes of the twelfth century (such as the paintings in the churches of two Kyiv monasteries - St. Michael and St. Cyril, as well as in the so-called church on Nereditsa near Novgorod), of course, Russian painters also took part along with the Greeks. Armenian artists may also have worked on Nereditsa. The church on Nereditsa was one of the most painful losses suffered during the German invasion.

The history of icon painting is similar to the history of fresco painting. At first, icons were either brought ready-made from Byzantium, or painted in Rus' by Greek masters. Later, their own artists were trained. The first to become famous among his contemporaries was a certain Alimpius, mentioned in the “Paterikon” of the Pechersk Monastery. Byzantine icons of exceptional beauty were brought back from time to time throughout the twelfth century. Apparently, it was Yuri Dolgoruky who brought from Constantinople famous icon The Mother of God, which his son Andrei placed in the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir and which, under the name of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, became one of the sacred symbols of Ancient Rus'.

Mosaics were used in the decoration of St. Sophia Cathedral and some other churches in Kyiv and Chernigov370. The art of enamel became extremely popular - Russian artists of the Kyiv period reached the highest technical level in the production of cloisonne enamel. Hoards similar to those found in Ryazan in 1822 and Kyiv in 1889 contain some remarkable gold and enamel jewelry dating back to the twelfth century. The flourishing of this type of applied art testifies to the artistic maturity of Kyiv civilization.371

There is no doubt that the art of embroidery of Kievan Rus was also highly developed, although very few examples of it have reached us. Both in monasteries and in princely palaces, skilled embroiderers were trained, and the princesses especially patronized this art, the spread of which, however, was by no means limited to the princely chambers. Almost every housewife, both in cities and villages, was obviously familiar with at least the basics of embroidery, which, therefore, can be considered a type of folk art in the broadest sense of the word. The roots of the art of embroidery go back centuries. It is noteworthy that the main motifs of Russian peasant embroidery date back to the Scythian and Sarmatian periods.372

In this regard, a few words need to be said about the role of ornament in Russian art. Both “plant” and “animal” styles were popular. The first, apparently, came to Rus' from Byzantium. The latter, as we know, was characteristic of Scythian and Sarmatian art. IN early middle ages it spread throughout Europe. Apparently, the spread of animal ornament in medieval Russian art was the result of both the traditions of the Sarmatian period and the influence of Western models, which were essentially a variant of the same traditions. Apparently we should also recognize the significant influence of the decorative arts of the Islamic Middle East on Russian art. A variety of ornamental forms is characteristic of all manifestations of the Russian artistic spirit, especially in the applied arts. It manifests itself in the decoration of manuscripts, embroidery, enamels, wood carvings, and so on. It influences not only the art of the upper classes, but also folk art; the same traditions are preserved in Russian peasant art of more modern periods.

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In today's lesson you will get acquainted with the architectural monuments of Ancient Rus'.

New stage in the history of architecture of Kievan Rus is associated with the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. Between 1017 and 1037 On his instructions, the most majestic and famous of all Russian churches was erected - the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia (Divine Wisdom) in Kyiv. Its architecture is characterized by triumphalism and festivity, associated with the assertion of the authority of the prince and the power of the young state.

The huge cathedral corresponded to the Byzantine design of a cross-domed church. In the middle of the temple there is a cruciform free space, topped with a dome. The extensive choirs were supported by powerful pillars, dividing the temple into five parts (naves) from west to east. In the 11th century The St. Sophia Cathedral had thirteen domes, but later underwent serious reconstruction, and the number of domes decreased. Ancient frescoes are barely visible on the cathedral walls, but the mosaics are as vibrant as they were centuries ago. They decorate the main parts of the temple: the dome - a symbol of the heavenly Church and the altar - a symbol of the earthly Church.

Rice. 2. St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (reconstruction) ()

Another monument of the era of Yaroslav the Wise was the Golden Gate. The gate was made of stone due to the fact that this structure was given special significance. They were built using the mixed masonry technique, known since the times Ancient Rome: layers of stones alternated with leveling rows of plinth. The Gate was crowned by the Gate Church of the Annunciation, so that every traveler approaching Kyiv could see that this was a Christian city. During the archaeological research of the Golden Gate, smalt cubes and fragments of fresco plaster were discovered, which indicates that ancient church was decorated with fresco paintings and mosaics. The gate was intended for ceremonial entry into the capital and was located in the southern part of the city. This is the main gate of the city, one of the three large city gates built under Yaroslav the Wise. On the field side in front of the gate there was a ditch 15 meters wide and 8 meters deep. Traces of this ditch can now be seen in the level difference of Zolotovorotsky Passage. The construction of the gate along with the St. Sophia Cathedral is mentioned in the chronicle under 1037. In 1240, the gate was badly damaged during the siege and capture of the city by Batu's hordes.

Rice. 3. Golden Gate in Kyiv ()

In the 12th century, the construction of churches began in Polotsk, Chernigov, Vyshgorod and Novgorod. The most remarkable is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod. This temple is stricter than the one in Kyiv; there are only five domes, arranged in a clear symmetrical order. The powerful walls are made of limestone. There are no bright mosaics inside the temple, but only stern and calm frescoes. St. Sophia Cathedral became a symbol of Veliky Novgorod.

Rice. 4. St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod ()

In ancient Russian art, the cultural achievements of Byzantium and other countries were creatively reworked and their own original cultural traditions were formed.

Mavrodin V.V. Where did the Russian land come from? M., 1986.
Rybakov B.A. World of history. The initial centuries of Russian history. M., 1984

History of architecture ().
Sofia Cathedral ().

How did the architecture of Ancient Rus' change after the adoption of Christianity?
What architectural monuments were built in Kyiv and Novgorod?
What traditions of Byzantine architecture were used in Russian architecture?

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Introduction……………………………………………………………………….3

Art of Kievan Rus……………………………………………………………….4

Architecture………………………………………………………………………………………. ..8

Fine arts……………………………………………………………….13

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………… ………………….15

List of references……………… ……………………………………16

Introduction

IX-XIII centuries - This is the period of Kievan Rus. Scientists explain the phenomenon of the extraordinary rise of the culture of the Old Russian state by close ties with Byzantium, Khazaria, and the countries of Central and Western Europe. their influence on the cultural progress of Rus' was indeed significant, but not decisive. There is no branch of ancient Russian culture, the development of which would not be based on centuries-old, sometimes thousand-year-old local traditions, enriched by the influences of neighboring peoples.

Studying the artistic products of Slavic and Old Russian crafts, archaeologists have long paid attention to the unusual historical depth of the elements of their decoration.

A similar connection with ancient local traditions is also demonstrated by Slavic stone idols discovered in the Dniester region. They are mostly humanoid, with many having relatively well modeled heads, faces, arms and legs.

At the stage of completion of the formation of the statehood of Kievan Rus, its culture was enriched with new elements. The most important of them was writing, which spread in the East Slavic world much earlier than the official introduction of Christianity. Some idea of the Slavic writing of pagan times is given by the discovery of a number of jugs and bowls of the Chernyakhov culture (II-V centuries). Now about a dozen vessels with quite interesting graphic designs are known. Their analysis, carried out by B. Rybakov, showed that we have a well-developed calendar system with the help of which the Slavs counted and told fortunes. These ritual vessels with calendar signs convey to us the diagram of the annual cycle of pagan-magical rituals and testify to the fairly high level of culture of our ancestors. Already in the 4th century. they knew the annual calendar, which consisted of four solar phases and 12 months.

Art of Kievan Rus

The art of Kievan Rus developed in the general mainstream of medievalEuropean cultureand was inextricably linked with the church and the Christian faith. At the same time, Slavic masters had their own stable, centuries-old traditions of pagan art. Therefore, having adopted much from Byzantium, they developed an original, unique style and created real masterpieces architecture, painting, applied arts . Old Russian art - painting, sculpture, music - also experienced tangible changes with the adoption of Christianity. Pagan Rus' knew all these types of art, but in a purely pagan, folk form. Ancient woodcarvers and stone cutters created wooden and stone sculptures of pagan gods and spirits, painters painted the walls of pagan temples, made sketches of magic masks, which were then made by artisans; musicians, playing string and woodwind instruments, entertained tribal leaders and entertained the common people. The Christian Church introduced completely different content into these types of art. Church art is subordinated to a higher goal - to glorify the Christian God, the exploits of the apostles, saints, and church leaders. If in pagan art “flesh” triumphed over the “spirit” and everything earthly, personifying nature was affirmed, then church art sang the victory of the “spirit” over the flesh, affirmed the high feats of the human soul for the sake of the moral principles of Christianity. In Byzantine art, which was considered at that time the most perfect in the world, this was expressed in the fact that there painting, music, and the art of sculpture were created mainly according to church canons, where everything that contradicted the highest Christian principles was cut off. Asceticism and severity in painting (icon painting, mosaic, fresco), sublimity, the “divinity” of Greek church prayers, the temple itself, becoming a place of prayerful communication between people - all this was characteristic of Byzantine art. If this or that religious, theological theme was strictly established in Christianity once and for all, then its depiction in art, according to the Byzantines, should have expressed this idea only in a once and always established way; the artist became only an obedient executor of the canons dictated by the church. And so, transferred to Russian soil, the art of Byzantium, canonical in content and brilliant in its execution, collided with the pagan worldview of the Eastern Slavs, with their joyful cult of nature - the sun, spring, light, with their completely earthly ideas about good and evil, sins and virtues. From the very first years, Byzantine church art in Rus' experienced the full power of Russian folk culture and folk aesthetic ideas. It was already mentioned above that the single-domed Byzantine temple in Rus' in the 11th century. turned into a multi-domed pyramid, the basis of which was Russian wooden architecture. The same thing happened with painting. Already in the 11th century. the strict ascetic manner of Byzantine icon painting turned under the brush of Russian artists into portraits close to life, although Russian icons bore all the features of a conventional icon painting image. At this time, the Pechersk monk-painter Alimpiy became famous, about whom his contemporaries said that he “was great at painting icons.” It was said about Alimpius that icon painting was the main means of his existence. But he spent what he earned in a very unique way: with one part he bought everything that was necessary for his craft, he gave the other to the poor, and the third he donated to Pechersky Monastery. Along with icon painting, fresco painting and mosaics developed. The frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv show the writing style of the local Greek and Russian masters, their penchant for human warmth, integrity and simplicity. On the walls of the cathedral we see images of saints, and the family of Yaroslav the Wise, and images of Russian buffoons, and animals. Wonderful iconography, frescoes, and mosaics filled other churches in Kyiv. The mosaics of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery with their depiction of the apostles and saints who have lost their Byzantine severity are known for their great artistic power: their faces have become softer and more rounded. Later the Novgorod school of painting was founded. Its characteristic features were clarity of idea, reality of image, and accessibility. From the 12th century Wonderful creations of Novgorod painters have come down to us: the icon “Golden Haired Angel”, where, despite all the Byzantine conventions, the image of the Angel feels reverent and beautiful human soul. Or the icon “Savior Not Made by Hands” (also 12th century), in which Christ, with his expressive arched eyebrows, appears as a formidable, all-understanding judge of the human race. On the icon of the Dormition of the Virgin Mary, the faces of the apostles depict all the sorrow of loss. And the Novgorod land produced many such masterpieces. Suffice it to recall, for example, the famous frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa near Novgorod (late 12th century).

At the beginning of the 13th century. became famous Yaroslavl school iconography. Many excellent iconographic works were written in the monasteries and churches of Yaroslavl. Especially famous among them is the so-called “Yaroslavl Oranta”, depicting the Mother of God. Its prototype was the mosaic image of the Virgin Mary in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, the work of Greek masters, depicting a stern, powerful woman spreading her hands over humanity. Yaroslavl craftsmen made the image of the Mother of God warmer, more humane. This is, first of all, a mother-intercessor, bringing help and compassion to people; the Byzantines saw the Mother of God in their own way, Russian painters - in their own way.

Over the course of many centuries, the art of wood carving, and later stone carving, developed and improved in Rus'. Wooden carved decorations generally became a characteristic feature of the homes of townspeople and peasants, and wooden churches.

The dishes were famous for their remarkable carvings. In the art of carvers, Russian folk traditions and Russian ideas about beauty and grace were most fully manifested. Famous art critic of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Stasov wrote: “There are still many people who think that you need to be elegant only in museums, in paintings and statues, in huge cathedrals, and finally, in everything exceptional, special, but as for the rest, you can get by with something - they say , empty and absurd... No, real, integral, healthy art exists only where the need for elegant forms, for a constant artistic form has already spread to hundreds of thousands of things that surround our lives every day.” The ancient Russians, decorating their lives with constant modest beauty, long ago confirmed the truth of these words.

This applied not only to wood and stone carving, but also to many types of artistic crafts. Elegant jewelry and true masterpieces were created by ancient Russian jewelers. They made bracelets, earrings, pendants, buckles, tiaras, medallions, and decorated dishes and weapons with gold, silver, enamel, and precious stones. With special diligence and love, craftsmen decorated icon frames, as well as books. An example is the frame of the “Ostromir Gospel”, skillfully decorated with leather and jewelry, created by order of the Kyiv mayor Ostromir during the time of Yaroslav the Wise.

Earrings made by a Kyiv artisan (11th-12th centuries) still cause a lot of fascination: Rings with semicircular shields, to which six silver cones with balls and 500 rings with a diameter of 0.06 cm made of wire with a diameter of 0.02 cm are soldered. tiny grains of silver with a diameter of 0.04 cm. It is difficult to imagine how people did this without having magnifying devices.

An integral part of the art of Rus' was the art of music and singing. In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the legendary storyteller-singer Boyan is mentioned, who “let” his fingers onto the living strings and they “themselves rumbled glory to the princes.” On the frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral we see images of musicians playing woodwind and string instruments - lute and harp. The talented singer Mitus from Galich is known from chronicle reports. Some church writings directed against Slavic pagan art mention street buffoons, singers, and dancers; There was also a folk puppet theater. It is known that at the court of Prince Vladimir, at the courts of other prominent Russian rulers, during feasts those present were entertained by singers, storytellers, and musicians (playing stringed instruments). And, of course, an important element of the entire ancient Russian culture was folklore - songs, tales, epics, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms. Wedding, drinking, and funeral songs reflected many features of the life of people of that time. So, in ancient wedding songs they spoke about the time when brides were kidnapped, “kidnapped” (of course, with their consent), in later ones - when they were ransomed, and in songs of Christian times they talked about the consent of both the bride and parents to marriage.

The whole world of Russian life is revealed in epics. Their main character is a hero, a defender of the people. The heroes had enormous physical strength. So, about the beloved Russian hero Ilya Muromets it was said: “Wherever you turn, there are streets, wherever you turn there are alleys.” At the same time, he was a very peace-loving hero who took up arms only when absolutely necessary. As a rule, the bearer of such irrepressible power is a native of the people, a peasant son. The people's heroes also possessed enormous magical power, wisdom, and cunning. Thus, the hero Volkhv Vseslavich could spin like a gray falcon, gray wolf, could have become Tur-Golden Horns. People's memory has preserved the image of heroes who came not only from the peasant environment - the boyar's son Dobrynya Nikitich, the cunning and resourceful representative of the clergy Alyosha Popovich. Each of them had their own character, their own characteristics, but they were all, as it were, exponents of people's aspirations, thoughts, hope. And the main one was protection from fierce enemies.

In the epic generalized images of enemies, one can also guess the real foreign policy opponents of Rus', the fight against which has deeply entered the consciousness of the people. Under the name of Tugarin one can see a generalized image of the Polovtsians with their khan Tugorkan, the struggle with whom took an entire period in the history of Rus' in the last quarter of the 11th century. Under the name “Zhidovina” is Khazaria, whose state religion was Judaism. Russian epic heroes faithfully served the epic prince Vladimir. They fulfilled his requests for the defense of the Fatherland; he turned to them at crucial times. The relationship between the heroes and the prince was not easy. There were both images and misunderstandings. But all of them - both the prince and the heroes - ultimately decided on one common cause - the people's. Scientists have shown that the name of Prince Vladimir does not necessarily mean Vladimir I. This image contains a generalized image of both Vladimir Svyatoslavich - a warrior against the Pechenegs, and Vladimir Monomakh - the defender of Rus' from the Polovtsians, and the image of other princes - brave, wise, cunning. And the most ancient epics reflected the legendary times of the struggle of the Eastern Slavs with the Chimerians, Sarmatians, Scythians, with all those whom the steppe so generously sent to conquer the East Slavic lands. These were old heroes of very ancient times, and the epics telling about them are akin to the epic of Homer, the ancient epic of other European and Indo-European peoples.

Architecture

Architectural model of St. Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv

Over the centuries, the Eastern Slavs accumulated rich experience in architecture, and a national tradition developedurban planning. For a long time as chiefconstruction material Ina wood was used , which was abundantly available. At the center of the settlements were " grads » , which served to protect against enemies, conduct tribal meetings and religious ceremonies. Majority structures in Slavic "grads" was built from log cabins - logs laid in quadrangular crowns . Simple huts and 2-3-story towers were built from log houses; the log houses were laid as the basis of the fortress ramparts.

A qualitatively new level of development of architecture is associated with the transition from wood to stone and brick build flatteries . With the adoption of Christianity, the construction of temples began, which represent an independent Old Russian adaptation of Byzantine models.

The first stone structures were created during the reign of Vladimir the Great. On the central square of ancient Kyiv they erectedChurch of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. The church was nicknamed Tithe that Vladimir assigned her a tenth of the grand ducal income with a special letter. The fate of the church was tragic: in 1240 when the hordes broke into Kyiv Batu , it became the last line of defense and was completely destroyed. Today its foundation has been cleared and preserved.

Kyiv, Kirillovskaya Church, plan

The most widespread in Rus'cross-domed cathedral planning . This composition of the temple was based on Christian symbolism, emphasizing its purpose. According to this system, the vaults with a central dome rested on four pillars, forming a cruciform composition. The corner parts were also covered with dome vaults . On the east side, in altar units arrived at the temple apses - semicircular projections covered with half dome or closed vault. Internal pillars divided the space temple on the naves (inter-row spaces).

Description of work